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The Old Testament was written primarily in Hebrew, with small portions in Aramaic. The New Testament was written in Koine Greek. Unless a reader knows these ancient languages, the words on the page have...
Christians believe that God communicates with human beings. The Bible describes God communicating through prophets, dreams, visions, wisdom, conscience, the Holy Spirit, the teachings of Jesus, and human...
The collection of books recognized as Scripture is known as the biblical canon. The word canon comes from a Greek word meaning "rule," "measuring rod," or "standard." In Christianity, the term refers to...
The New Testament is the second major section of the Christian Bible. It focuses on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, the growth of the early Christian movement, and the beliefs that shaped the first...
The Old Testament is the first major section of the Christian Bible. It contains the writings that Christians inherited from ancient Israel and shares much of its content with the sacred Scriptures of...
The Old Testament contains writings associated with ancient Israel and is traditionally organized into several major categories. The first five books of the Bible—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and...
The Bible is the central sacred text of Christianity. Christians believe the Bible contains writings that reveal God's character, God's relationship with humanity, and God's purposes for the world. It...
See all of the sections in Module 6.
See all of the sections in Module 13.
Although states remain the primary actors in international relations, they are no longer the only actors that influence world affairs. Today, businesses, international organizations, terrorist groups,...
Throughout history, one of the greatest challenges facing nations has been the prevention and management of conflict. Although many international interactions are peaceful, disagreements between states...
Constructivism focuses on ideas. Constructivists argue that international politics cannot be understood solely through military power, economic interests, or political institutions. They believe that beliefs,...
Constructivism focuses on ideas. Constructivists argue that international politics cannot be understood solely through military power, economic interests, or political institutions. They believe that beliefs,...
While realism emphasizes competition, power, and survival, liberalism offers a more optimistic view of international relations. Liberalism agrees that the international system is anarchic and that states...
Political scientists have developed several major international relations theories. One of the oldest and most influential of these theories is realism. Realism begins with the observation that states...
Political science studies power within societies. International relations studies power between societies. More specifically, international relations (often abbreviated IR) is the study of how states,...
See all of the sections for module 12.
When institutions weaken, governments may face increasing difficulty responding to crises. In severe cases, political instability can lead to state fragility or even state failure.
Three concepts frequently discussed by political scientists are corruption, clientelism, and institutional decay. Although distinct, all three can undermine governance, reduce public trust, weaken state...
A state may possess significant capacity, but how effectively does it actually use that capacity? Are institutions competent, accountable, fair, and responsive to the needs of society?
Political scientists...
Political scientists often ask why some states govern effectively while others struggle to maintain order, enforce laws, or provide basic services. Some governments collect taxes efficiently, control their...
Module 11 explains why some states govern effectively while others become weak, unstable, or even collapse. It begins with state capacity, the practical ability of a state to carry out its decisions, enforce...
In everyday political conversation, words like liberal, progressive, socialist, and left-wing are often used as though they all mean the same thing. However, these terms describe different ideas, traditions,...
Few political ideologies have had a greater impact on the twentieth century than fascism. Fascism emerged in the years following World War I during a period of economic hardship, political instability,...
Nationalism focuses on the relationship between people and the nation. Populism focuses on the relationship between ordinary citizens and political elites.
What happens when spiritual ideas are used in harmful ways? Throughout history, religious beliefs have inspired acts of compassion, courage, sacrifice, service, and personal transformation. At the same...
Conservatives generally argue that societies are complex and that institutions often contain valuable knowledge, traditions, and social arrangements that have developed over long periods of time. Because...
How can a person know what is true? Throughout Christian history, believers have claimed to receive guidance from God. Others have claimed prophetic insight, visions, miracles, spiritual gifts, divine...
Liberalism emerged during the Enlightenment as thinkers began questioning absolute monarchy, inherited privilege, and restrictions on individual freedom. Influenced by philosophers such as John Locke,...
Christianity often describes life as a spiritual battle. When many people hear the phrase spiritual warfare, they immediately think of demons, exorcisms, curses, possession, and supernatural conflict....