12.4 Constructivism:
Ideas, Identity, & Global Norms
Realism emphasizes power and security.
Liberalism emphasizes cooperation and institutions.
Constructivism focuses on ideas.
Constructivists argue that international politics cannot be understood solely through military power, economic interests, or political institutions. They believe that beliefs, identities, values, norms, and shared understandings also shape how states behave.
According to constructivism, the international system is not only influenced by material factors such as armies, wealth, and geography. It is also influenced by how people interpret the world around them. In other words, ideas matter.
How Constructivists View the International System
As previously discussed, realists and liberals generally treat the international system as a structure that exists independently of what people think about it.
Constructivists agree that states exist within an anarchic international system, but they argue that the meaning of anarchy depends partly on how states understand and respond to it.
A famous constructivist scholar, Alexander Wendt, summarized this idea with the phrase:
“Anarchy is what states make of it.”
This means that anarchy does not automatically produce a specific type of behavior. States can respond to anarchy through competition, fear, and conflict. They can also respond through cooperation, trust, and shared expectations.
Constructivists argue that the international system is shaped not only by objective conditions but also by the ideas and relationships that states develop over time.
Identity and State Behavior
One of the most important concepts in constructivism is identity.
Identity refers to how a state sees itself and how it understands its place in the world.
States often develop national identities based on history, culture, religion, language, political values, historical experiences, or shared traditions.nThese identities can influence foreign policy. For example, two countries may possess similar military capabilities but behave very differently because they view themselves differently. One state may see itself as a defender of international cooperation. Another may see itself as an isolated nation that should avoid foreign involvement. A third may see itself as a revolutionary state with a mission to transform the international system.
Constructivists argue that understanding these identities helps explain why states make the choices they do.
Norms and Shared Expectations
Constructivists also emphasize the importance of norms.
A norm is a shared expectation about what behavior is considered appropriate or inappropriate.
Norms exist throughout society. People generally expect others not to steal, assault strangers, or drive on the wrong side of the road. These expectations influence behavior even when formal enforcement is limited.
The same idea applies to international relations. States operate within a system that contains many norms.
Examples include:
- Respect for diplomatic immunity
- Opposition to piracy
- Expectations regarding sovereignty
- Rules governing warfare
- Human rights standards
- Norms against genocide
- Norms against the use of certain weapons
Not all states follow these norms consistently. However, constructivists argue that norms still matter because they influence how states judge one another, shape international expectations, and affect legitimacy. Over time, norms can change how states behave.
How Ideas Change International Politics
One of constructivism’s greatest strengths is its ability to explain change.
Realists often focus on shifts in power.
Liberals often focus on institutions and incentives.
Constructivists ask how changing ideas can transform international politics itself.
For example, slavery was once accepted in many societies but later became widely condemned. Colonialism was once considered normal by many powerful states but eventually lost legitimacy. The use of chemical weapons became increasingly stigmatized after their devastating effects became widely recognized. In each case, material conditions mattered, but so did changing beliefs about what was acceptable.
Constructivists argue that international politics evolves not only because power changes, but because ideas change. When enough people adopt new beliefs, they can alter laws, institutions, norms, and political behavior.
The Social Construction of Reality
Constructivists often describe international politics as socially constructed.
This phrase can sound confusing at first. It does not mean that physical reality is imaginary. Military forces, borders, resources, and geography are real.
Instead, constructivists argue that many political concepts gain their meaning through shared human understanding.
For example:
- Money has value because people collectively agree that it has value.
- Borders matter because people collectively recognize them.
- Diplomatic immunity works because states generally accept the norm.
International law functions largely because states believe it should be taken seriously. Many aspects of political life depend on shared beliefs and expectations. Constructivists study how those beliefs develop and how they influence behavior.
Strengths and Criticisms of Constructivism
Constructivism helps explain many aspects of international politics that realism and liberalism sometimes struggle to address.
- It provides insight into nationalism, ideology, identity, legitimacy, human rights movements, international norms, and long-term changes in political behavior.
- It helps explain why states with similar material interests sometimes behave very differently.
- It also helps explain how ideas can reshape the international system over time.
However, constructivism also faces criticism. Critics argue that ideas can be difficult to measure and that constructivist explanations are sometimes less precise than explanations based on power or economic interests. Others argue that constructivism may underestimate the continuing importance of military power and material resources.
Despite these criticisms, constructivism has become one of the major theories of international relations.
At its core, constructivism argues that international politics is shaped not only by power and institutions, but also by ideas, identities, norms, and shared understandings. To understand why states behave as they do, we must understand not only what capabilities they possess, but also how they see themselves and the world around them.
In section 12.5, we will examine how states put these ideas into practice through foreign policy, diplomacy, and alliances.