Module 15: Islam and Political Authority

These examples show that Muslim-majority countries can have varying implementations of Sharia: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Turkey.

It is estimated over 90% of Turkey’s population identifies as Muslim. Turkey provides an example of a legal system in a Muslim-majority country where government is formally separate from Sharia.

As of 2026, Indonesia’s population is estimated to be over 280 million, making it the 4th most populous country in the world.

It is also the world’s most populous Muslim-majority country, with about 87% of the population identifying as Muslim (roughly 240+ million people). The overwhelming majority identify as Sunni Muslims.

Pakistan provides an example of a system where Islamic law and a Western-style legal system exist together. It is a parliamentary republic, which means leaders are elected, and laws are created through a legislative process.

Iran provides an example of a system where religion is not only connected to government, but formally built into its structure. It is an Islamic theocratic republic, which means it combines elements of democracy, such as elections, with a system of religious oversight.

Saudi Arabia is a theocracy and provides one of the clearest examples of a modern state where Islam and governance are closely connected.

It is an absolute monarchy, which means the ruling royal family holds most of the political power, and there is no elected national body that can make laws on its own.

In this example, we will compare inheritance laws across five Muslim-majority countries. Qur’an 4:11 states: “…for the male is the share of two females…”

A caliphate is a form of Islamic government led by a caliph, who is considered the political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The term is derived from the Arabic khalifa, meaning “successor,” “deputy,” or “steward.”

To understand why Islam plays a role in many political governments, we have to look at how the religion began and how it understands the world.

Islam Module 15 explains why Islam is often closely connected to politics and compares how that connection appears in different Muslim-majority countries. It shows that Islam historically developed with both religious and political dimensions, especially because Muhammad was not only a prophet but also a political leader.