15.2 Caliphates & Islamism
(Political Islam)

A caliphate is a form of Islamic government led by a caliph, who is considered the political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The term is derived from the Arabic khalifa, meaning “successor,” “deputy,” or “steward.”

After Muhammad’s death in the 7th century, leadership of the Muslim community passed to a series of rulers known as the “Rightly Guided” Caliphs, who combined religious leadership with political governance.

The caliphate was responsible for governing the community, upholding justice, and maintaining unity among Muslims. This role included implementing Islamic law, providing security, and serving as a central figure of leadership.

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The history of the caliphate is commonly divided into several major eras: 

632–661 CE | Rashidun Caliphate: Led by the “Rightly Guided” caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) who were close companions of Muhammad. This era is often viewed by Sunnis as a “golden age” of piety and justice.

661–750 CE | Umayyad Caliphate: Based in Damascus, the Umayyads transitioned the office into a hereditary monarchy and expanded the empire from Spain to Central Asia.

750–1517 CE | Abbasid Caliphate: Centered in Baghdad, this period is known for the Islamic Golden Age, a time of immense advancements in science, philosophy, and the arts. The Abbasid Caliphate lost its real political power in 1258 when the Mongols destroyed Baghdad. However, a line of Abbasid caliphs continued in a symbolic role in Cairo until 1517, when the Ottoman Empire took control and the title was transferred.

1517–1924 CE | Ottoman Caliphate: The Ottoman Sultans eventually claimed the title, becoming the first major non-Arab leaders to do so. The institution was formally abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk following the founding of the secular Republic of Turkey.

The decline and eventual abolition of the caliphate marked a major shift in the political structure of the Muslim world.

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From this context, movements began to emerge that argued for a greater role of Islam in public and political life.

These movements are often called Islamism, or political Islam, which started as a response to a series of historical crises in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The most direct trigger was the expansion of European empires into Muslim territories. Colonial powers replaced traditional Sharia-based legal systems with European codes, pushing Islam out of public governance and into private ritual.

Many Muslims feared that Western education and secularism would destroy the religious identity and unity of the ummah (global Muslim community).

The final dismantling of the Ottoman Empire after World War I was a massive psychological blow. In 1924, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the Caliphate in Turkey, replacing it with a secular republic.

For the first time in over 1,000 years, there was no single political office representing the global Muslim world.

Following independence from colonial rule, many Muslim-majority nations adopted secular nationalist or socialist models. These secular regimes often struggled with poverty, corruption, and military failures—most notably the Arab defeat in the 1967 Six-Day War.

As people became disillusioned with Western-style systems that failed to provide stability or dignity, the phrase “Islam is the Solution” became a rallying cry for those seeking an “authentic” alternative rooted in their own heritage.

The Islamism ideology often frames itself as a “return” to a pure form of Islam from the 7th century, positioning it as a remedy for perceived moral decay caused by Western influence and colonialism.

Early Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood (founded in 1928), emerged specifically to restore this lost sense of religious and political order.

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Islamism has contributed to the development of a wide range of movements, including (but not limited to):

— Political Movements —

1. Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt, 1928)
2. Tunisia’s Ennahda Movement (Tunisia, 1981)

These groups are generally considered moderate Islamic democratic parties. They have typically sought to maintain legal ties with foreign governments. However, these groups remain controversial.

Several governments have banned the Muslim Brotherhood and designated them as a terrorist organization (such as Egypt in 2013 and Saudi Arabia in 2014). Since 2021, Ennahda has also faced ongoing legal and political pressure in Tunisia.

— Militant-Political Groups —

1. Hamas (Gaza, 1987)
2. Hezbollah (Lebanon, 1982)

These groups seek control and influence over specific territory and combine political roles with armed activity. Though they will interact with foreign governments, they are considered terrorist organizations by many countries.

— Extremist or Jihadist Groups —

1. Al-Qaeda (1988)
2. ISIS (2013)

These groups aim to overthrow governments and build a completely new global system. They are known for international terrorism. They oppose almost all governments, including Muslim governments. Their goal is to destabilize and replace, not participate.

In section 15.3, we will look at a high-level overview of several Muslim-majority countries and their government structures.