9 Sharia (Islamic Law)

As Islamic law developed in the centuries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, scholars across the growing Muslim world studied the Qur’an, the Hadith, and earlier legal opinions in order to determine how God’s guidance should be applied to new situations.

Because these scholars lived in different regions and sometimes used different methods of interpretation, several distinct schools of legal thought eventually developed. These traditions are known as madhhabs (schools of law).

Each madhhab represents a long scholarly tradition that developed its own methods for interpreting Islamic sources and applying legal reasoning.

Importantly, these schools do not represent different religions. All of them are recognized within Islam as legitimate approaches to understanding and applying Islamic law.

Sunni and Shia Islam are the two main branches of the religion, originating from a 7th-century dispute over who should succeed Prophet Muhammad.

Sunnis (~85–90% of Muslims) believe the community should choose the leader (Caliph), while Shias (~10–15% of Muslims) believe leadership belongs to the Prophet’s family (Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law).

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The Four Major Sunni Schools

(~85–90% of Muslims)

Within Sunni Islam, four major legal schools became the most influential.

— (1) Hanafi School —

Founded by Abu Hanifa (699–767 CE). The Hanafi school is known for placing significant emphasis on reasoning and analogy when interpreting the law. It became the dominant legal school in many parts of the Ottoman Empire, including modern-day Turkey, the Balkans, Central Asia, and South Asia.

— (2) Maliki School —

Founded by Malik ibn Anas (711–795 CE). The Maliki tradition places strong weight on the practices of the early Muslim community in Medina, where the Prophet Muhammad lived. This school became influential across North and West Africa.

— (3) Shafi‘i School —

Founded by Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i (767–820 CE). Al-Shafi‘i is famous for helping systematize Islamic legal theory. His approach carefully balanced the authority of the Qur’an, Hadith, and legal reasoning. The Shafi‘i school spread widely in East Africa, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East.

— (4) Hanbali School —

Associated with Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). The Hanbali tradition places strong emphasis on the Qur’an and Hadith and is generally considered the most text-focused of the four schools. Today it is most closely associated with Saudi Arabia.

Other schools also existed, but these four became the most widely followed.

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The Shia Legal Tradition

(~10–15% of Muslims)

In addition to the Sunni schools, Shia Islam developed its own legal tradition.

The largest Shia legal school is the Ja‘fari school, named after Ja‘far al-Sadiq (702–765 CE), an important early Islamic scholar and descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Ja‘fari jurisprudence shares many similarities with Sunni legal traditions but also includes distinct interpretations and methods of legal reasoning.

This legal tradition is followed primarily in Iran and by many Shia Muslim communities around the world.

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Differences Between the Schools

Although the major legal schools agree on most core beliefs and practices of Islam, they sometimes differ on specific legal questions, such as:

— (1) Details of Prayer Practices —

Example A: Hanafi, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali schools generally teach that the hands should be folded over the chest or abdomen while standing in prayer. Maliki school traditionally allows the arms to rest at the sides during the standing portion of the prayer. Both practices are considered acceptable within Sunni Islam.

Example B: Some schools say saying “Ameen” aloud after Al-Fatiha is recommended. Others prefer it to be said quietly.

— (2) Marriage and Divorce Regulations —

Example C: One debated issue involves triple divorce (talaq). In some traditional legal interpretations, if a husband says “I divorce you” three times in one sitting (rather than over three separate months), some jurists historically considered the divorce immediately final. Other scholars argued that saying it three times should still count as only one divorce, giving the couple time to reconcile. Modern Muslim-majority countries handle this issue very differently, with some banning the instant triple divorce entirely.

— (3) Rules Governing Business Contracts —

Example D: The Hanafi school historically allowed greater flexibility in contract structures and commercial agreements. Some other schools traditionally placed stricter limits on certain types of speculative transactions, especially where uncertainty (known as gharar) was involved.

— (4) Inheritance Laws —

Example E: Some schools treat a grandfather similarly to a father in inheritance priority when estates are divided in specific family situations. Other schools assign different fractional shares depending on the surviving relatives.

All of these differences arise because scholars used slightly different methods when interpreting the Qur’an and Hadith.

In Islam, the concept of ikhtilaf is the Arabic term for “legal disagreement.” A famous Islamic saying is, “Difference of opinion in the community is a mercy,” noting that differences in schools are viewed positively, not as “errors.”

In Module 10, we will look at sin, repentance, and salvation in Islam.