8 Hadith and the Sunnah
8.1 What Is The Sunnah?
8.2 What Is Hadith?
8.3 The Science of Hadith Criticism
8.4 The Role of the Sunnah in Islamic Law
8.1 What Is The Sunnah?
The Sunnah is one of the most fundamental concepts in Islam, taught in Muslim families from a very young age as the essential partner to the Qur’an.
In ancient Arabia, sunnah referred to the established customs and precedents set by tribal ancestors. Once the Prophet Muhammad began his mission, the term became specifically attached to him, meaning “The Way of the Prophet.”
The Sunnah refers to the example and behavior of the Prophet Muhammad, including things he said, actions he performed, and practices he approved of.
Muslims view Muhammad as a model of how a believer should live according to God’s guidance. Because of this, his actions and teachings are considered the primary source for understanding how the message of the Qur’an should be practiced in daily life.
For example, the Qur’an commands Muslims to pray, but the specific form of the daily prayers (such as the number of prayers, the physical movements, and the words recited) comes largely from the example of Muhammad preserved in the Sunnah.
In casual conversation, a Muslim might say, “It is Sunnah to do X,” referring to small, recommended habits like entering a room with the right foot or smiling at others.
In this way, the Sunnah serves as a practical guide that helps Muslims apply the teachings of the Qur’an.
In Islamic law (Sharia), an act labeled as “Sunnah” is a highly recommended action that brings reward but is not a sin to skip, like extra prayers or using a miswak. A miswak is a natural, eco-friendly toothbrush twig derived primarily from the Salvadora persica tree (Arak), used for centuries in many cultures for oral hygiene. It acts as a mechanical cleaner and contains natural antibacterial, anticariogenic, and astringent compounds that prevent plaque, gum disease, and bad breath.
While the Sunnah represents the prophetic example itself, this example is preserved and transmitted through the Hadith—recorded reports describing Muhammad’s words and actions.
In section 8.2, we will look at Hadith.
8.2 What Is Hadith?
While the Sunnah refers to the example and practices of the Prophet Muhammad, this example has been preserved through reports known as Hadith.
A Hadith is basically a short report about something Muhammad said or did. Many of them are only one or two sentences long. They also include reports of his physical appearance and his moral character.
These reports were passed down through generations of Muslims who preserved and transmitted accounts of the Prophet’s life. Over time, scholars collected and recorded thousands of these reports in written form.
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Here are several examples of very famous and commonly cited Hadith that Muslims often learn:
— (1) The Hadith of Intentions —
One of the most famous hadith is: “Actions are judged by intentions, and every person will receive according to what they intended.”
This hadith teaches that the inner motivation behind an action matters. Two people might do the same outward act, but the moral value of the act depends on their intention. Doing something outwardly good is not enough if the intention behind it is selfish or dishonest.
This hadith appears at the very beginning of one of the most famous hadith collections, Sahih al-Bukhari, and many scholars consider it one of the most important principles in Islamic ethics.
— (2) The Hadith of Gabriel (Jibril) —
This is another one of the most important hadith.
In the Hadith of Gabriel, the Prophet Muhammad defines the religion in three progressive dimensions.
According to the report, the companions of Muhammad were sitting with him one day when a stranger appeared.
The man had very white clothing, very black hair, and no signs of travel. This was unusual because in the desert, travelers typically showed dust or fatigue from their journey. The companions later said they did not recognize him, which made the situation even stranger.
The man sat very close to Muhammad and began asking him a series of questions. At the end of the conversation, Muhammad told his companions that the visitor was the angel Gabriel, who had come to teach them about their religion.
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(A) Gabriel first asked: “What is Islam?”
Muhammad answered by listing five practices:
- Testifying that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God
- Performing the daily prayers
- Giving charity (zakat)
- Fasting during Ramadan
- Performing pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca if able
These practices later became known as the Five Pillars of Islam.
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(B) Gabriel then asked: “What is faith (Iman)?”
Muhammad responded by listing six core beliefs:
- Belief in God
- Belief in angels
- Belief in revealed books (such as the Torah, Psalms, Gospel, and Qur’an)
- Belief in prophets
- Belief in the Day of Judgment
- Belief in divine decree
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(C) Gabriel then asked: “What Is Spiritual Excellence (Ihsan)?”
Muhammad replied: “To worship God as if you see Him, and if you do not see Him, know that He sees you.”
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(D) Gabriel then asked about the Hour (the Day of Judgment).
Muhammad said that even he did not know when it would occur. However, he mentioned signs that would precede it, including social upheaval and changes in society.
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The Hadith of Gabriel explains:
- Practice (Islam)
- Belief (Iman)
- Spirituality (Ihsan)
This hadith is sometimes called the “Mother of the Sunnah” because of how it summarizes all of Islam in a single conversation.
— (3) The Hadith of Compassion —
Another widely quoted Hadith says: “None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself.”
This teaching highlights the importance of empathy and concern for others in Islamic ethics.
It is often compared to ethical teachings in other religious traditions that emphasize treating others as one would wish to be treated.
— (4) Everyday Behavior —
Some hadith record very ordinary habits attributed to Muhammad.
For example, a report says that Muhammad recommended using a miswak (a natural toothbrush twig) to clean the teeth.
— Other Hadith Mention Practices Such As —
(5) Greeting people with peace
(6) Smiling at others
(7) Showing kindness to animals
(8) Helping neighbors
These kinds of reports are why many small daily habits are sometimes described by Muslims as “Sunnah practices.”
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What makes these examples Hadith?
Each of these teachings was originally preserved as a report transmitted by witnesses who said they heard or saw Muhammad say or do these things.
Those reports were then passed down through generations before being written in hadith collections.
There are six major collections that Sunni Muslims consider the most reliable, with Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim being the top two.
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Sunnah = the example or model of Muhammad’s life.
Hadith = the reports that preserve that example.
So when Muslims read a hadith about Muhammad smiling, praying, or giving advice, they understand it as a glimpse into the Sunnah, the prophetic example.
In section 8.3, we will look at fabricated reports after Muhammad’s death, and the development of hadith verification.
8.3 The Science of Hadith Criticism
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, the Muslim world expanded rapidly across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia.
As the Muslim community grew, new political disputes, theological debates, and legal questions began to arise.
In many of these debates, people attempted to strengthen their arguments by claiming that the Prophet Muhammad had said something supporting their position.
Because a statement attributed to the Prophet carried enormous authority, some reports circulating about Muhammad were mistaken, exaggerated, or deliberately invented.
Some people also invented “good” hadith or “pious fabrications” (like “reading this chapter gives you 100 rewards”) because they thought they were encouraging people to be more religious.
To address this problem, Muslim scholars developed a system for evaluating the reliability of hadith. Over time, this system became known as the Science of Hadith Criticism.
The goal of this scholarly discipline was to determine which reports about Muhammad were trustworthy and which were not.
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To evaluate a hadith, scholars examined two key components.
— (1) The Isnad (Chain of Transmission) —
The isnad is the chain of individuals who passed the report from one person to another.
A hadith might begin with a chain such as: “Narrated by Ahmad, who heard it from Abdullah, who heard it from Aisha, who heard it from the Prophet Muhammad.”
Scholars carefully investigated the people in these chains by asking questions such as: Did these individuals actually live at the same time? Could they realistically have met each other? Were they known to be honest and reliable? Did they have strong memories?
Muslim scholars compiled extensive biographical dictionaries documenting the lives, reputations, and reliability of thousands of transmitters. This field, known as ʿIlm al-Rijāl (“The Science of Men”), functioned somewhat like a database evaluating thousands of people’s “credit scores” for honesty and memory.
— (2) The Matn (Text of the Report) —
The matn is the actual wording or content of the hadith.
Scholars also examined the text itself by asking questions such as: Does this report contradict the Qur’an? Does it conflict with stronger hadith? Does the wording seem consistent with Muhammad’s known teachings?
Both the isnad and the matn were studied together when determining whether a report could be trusted.
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Grading Categories
After evaluating the chains of transmission and the content of the reports, scholars classified hadith into different categories, including:
- Sahih (Sound): The highest grade. Both the chain and text meet the highest standards of reliability.
- Hasan (Good): Similar to Sahih, but one narrator may have a slightly less perfect memory. It is still accepted as reliable evidence.
- Da’if (Weak): Fails to meet one or more criteria (e.g., a broken chain or an unreliable narrator). It is generally not used to establish law or belief.
- Mawdu’ (Fabricated): A report that was proven to be a forgery. It is forbidden to share these except to warn people about them.
These classifications helped scholars determine how strongly a particular hadith could be used in religious teaching or legal decisions.
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Major Hadith Collections
Several scholars dedicated their lives to collecting and evaluating hadith traditions.
Among Sunni Muslims, six major collections eventually became especially influential. These are sometimes called the “Six Books” (Kutub al-Sittah). They include:
- Sahih al-Bukhari
- Sahih Muslim
- Sunan Abu Dawud
- Jamiʿ al-Tirmidhi
- Sunan al-Nasa’i
- Sunan Ibn Majah
The first two—Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim—are generally considered the most reliable collections.
Most historians today would say that the hadith literature likely contains a mixture of early memories, later interpretations, and some fabricated reports.
Muslim scholars have spent centuries trying to separate reliable traditions from unreliable ones, and different scholars sometimes reach different conclusions about particular reports.
Through this process, Muslim scholars created one of the most detailed systems of historical verification developed in the pre-modern world.
In section 8.4, we will explore how the Qur’an and the Sunnah together form the foundation of Islamic law, known as Sharia.
8.4 The Role of the Sunnah in Islamic Law
The Qur’an is the central sacred text of Islam and is considered the primary source of religious guidance for Muslims.
However, the Qur’an does not provide detailed instructions for every situation in life. Many religious practices and legal questions require further explanation.
For this reason, Muslims also look to the Sunnah, the example of the Prophet Muhammad, as an important source of guidance.
The Sunnah helps explain how the teachings of the Qur’an are applied in everyday life. Through the Hadith literature, Muslims preserved reports describing how Muhammad practiced the religion and addressed real situations in his community.
Thus, the Qur’an and the Sunnah together form the foundation of Islamic law, known as Sharia.
The phrase “Sharia Law” is technically redundant, because the word Sharia already refers to the system of Islamic law and guidance, so saying Sharia law is essentially the same as saying law law.
Over time, Muslim scholars developed systems of legal interpretation in order to apply these sources to new circumstances. Classical Islamic legal theory generally identifies four main sources used in legal reasoning:
- The Qur’an – the primary revelation of Islam
- The Sunnah – the example of the Prophet preserved through Hadith
- Ijma (Scholarly Consensus) – agreement among qualified scholars
- Qiyas (Analogical Reasoning) – applying existing rulings to new situations based on a shared underlying reason
Using these sources, scholars developed detailed legal traditions addressing issues such as worship, family life, business practices, and criminal law.
Different legal schools within Islam sometimes reached different conclusions about how these sources should be interpreted.
In the Module 9, we will explore Sharia in more detail.