17.3 Historical Context and Varieties in Jihad
The historical development of jihad is a complex evolution. While the word originally referred broadly to striving in the path of God, its meaning and application have expanded over time to include spiritual, political, and military dimensions.
— Early Foundations (7th Century CE) —
The Arabic word jihad means “to strive” or “to struggle.”
During the early years of Islam, its meaning developed alongside the changing circumstances of the Muslim community:
610-622 CE Meccan Period | The early Muslim community faced persecution. The emphasis during this time was primarily on internal struggle—remaining faithful, patient, and morally upright under pressure.
622-632 CE Medinan Period | After the migration to Medina, the Muslim community became more established politically. During this period, external forms of jihad (including armed conflict) emerged as a means of self-defense and community preservation.
— Classical and Imperial Expansion (8th–13th Centuries) —
After the death of Muhammad, Islamic empires expanded beyond Arabia. During this time, scholars developed formal legal frameworks to regulate jihad.
Key developments included:
- Legal Categorization: Some jurists described the world in terms of Dar al-Islam (Abode of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (Abode of War).
- Types of Obligation:
- Defensive jihad → often considered an individual duty
- Offensive jihad → often considered a collective duty
- Rules of Engagement: Classical Sharia established restrictions, including prohibitions against killing non-combatants such as women, children, and the elderly.
During this period, jihad became part of a broader system of Sharia and governance.
— The Medieval Shift (14th Century) —
Major historical events influenced how jihad was understood.
For example, during the Mongol invasions, the scholar Ibn Taymiyyah argued that jihad could also be directed against “apostate” rulers (those who claim Islam but don’t rule by it).
This introduced the idea that jihad could be used not only against external enemies, but also in internal political conflict.
— Anti-Colonial and Revolutionary Jihad (18th–20th Centuries) —
Beginning in the 1700s, jihad took on new meanings in response to global political changes, including:
- Anti-Colonial Resistance: Jihad was used as a rallying concept against European colonial expansion in Muslim-majority regions.
- Ideological Transformation: Thinkers such as Sayyid Qutb and Abul A’la Maududi reinterpreted jihad as a revolutionary struggle to overthrow secular governments and establish Islamic rule.
- “The Neglected Duty”: Some modern movements argued that jihad had been abandoned and needed to be restored as a central obligation.
— Modern Global Jihad (1979–Present) —
The Soviet-Afghan War (1979) marked a major turning point.
Fighters from across the world joined the conflict, creating global networks. This created a shift in tactics.
Islamic groups such as Al-Qaeda and ISIS reinterpreted jihad to justify:
- Global conflict
- Targeting civilians
- Unconventional warfare
The interpretations of jihad by these groups are widely rejected by many Muslims, yet these groups have had a significant global impact.
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Across history, jihad has taken multiple forms, including:
- Spiritual and Personal → self-discipline, moral development
- Social and Political → reform movements, resistance, justice efforts
- Military → defense of communities, expansion, and conflict
Different communities and scholars have emphasized different aspects depending on their circumstances.
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Jihad is not a fixed or uniform practice. It has been shaped by historical events and applied differently across time and societies.
Today, while extremist interpretations often receive the most attention, many Muslims continue to understand jihad primarily as internal striving, or a strictly regulated form of defense.
In Module 18, we will examine how some modern groups interpret and apply jihad, including: ISIS, Al-Qaeda, Taliban, Boko Haram, Al-Shabaab, Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Muslim Brotherhood.