6.5 Canon:
How the Books of the Bible Were Chosen
The collection of books that Christians recognize as Scripture is known as the biblical canon.
The word canon comes from a Greek word meaning “rule,” “measuring rod,” or “standard.” In Christianity, the term refers to the collection of writings that a religious community recognizes as authoritative Scripture.
The Bible did not begin as a single bound volume containing all of its books. Instead, its individual writings were composed over many centuries, copied by hand, circulated among communities, and gradually recognized as sacred.
The process by which these books came to be recognized as Scripture is known as the formation of the canon.
The Old Testament Canon
The books of the Old Testament developed over many centuries within ancient Israel.
Long before Christianity existed, the Jewish people preserved sacred writings that included the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Together, these collections became known in Judaism as the Tanakh.
By the time of Jesus, these Scriptures were already widely recognized as authoritative within Jewish religious life. However, not every Jewish community used exactly the same collection of writings.
Many Jews living throughout the Greek-speaking world read a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures known as the Septuagint, often abbreviated as the LXX because of the traditional account that it was translated by seventy or seventy-two Jewish scholars.
In addition to translating the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, the Septuagint also included several other Jewish writings that were widely read in many ancient Jewish communities.
These additional books include works such as Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Baruch, and First and Second Maccabees.
Catholics generally refer to these books as the Deuterocanonical Books, meaning “second canon.” Protestants commonly refer to them as the Apocrypha, meaning “hidden books.”
Some Christian traditions recognize these books as part of the Old Testament, while others do not. As a result, Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Bibles differ slightly in the books they include.
The New Testament Canon
The books of the New Testament were written during the first century AD.
The earliest Christians did not immediately possess a complete New Testament. Instead, individual churches possessed different collections of writings.
One church might have a copy of the Gospel of Matthew. Another might possess several of Paul’s letters. Others had different combinations of Gospels, letters, or other apostolic writings.
As Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire, these writings were copied, shared, and read publicly in churches.
Over time, certain books became widely accepted because they were regularly read in worship, quoted by Christian leaders, and believed to faithfully preserve the teachings of Jesus and the apostles.
At the same time, many other writings also circulated among early Christians. Some claimed to record sayings of Jesus. Others described visions, miracles, or conversations attributed to apostles.
Examples include writings such as the Gospel of Thomas and The Shepherd of Hermas. Although some Christians valued these books, they were not ultimately recognized as part of the New Testament canon because they did not receive the same widespread acceptance or apostolic authority as the twenty-seven books that became Scripture.
One of the challenges facing the early Church was determining which writings faithfully represented the apostolic faith.
How Were the Books Recognized?
The biblical canon was not created by a single individual or at a single church council. Rather, it developed gradually over several centuries.
Although different Christian traditions describe this process somewhat differently, several broad principles played an important role in determining whether a book came to be recognized as Scripture.
Apostolic Connection
Many early Christians believed that authoritative books should have a close connection to the apostles or to the earliest witnesses of Jesus’ ministry. This did not necessarily mean that every book had to be written directly by an apostle, but it was expected to preserve apostolic teaching.
Antiquity
Books that were believed to come from the apostolic age were generally given greater authority than writings produced generations later.
Consistency with Christian Teaching
Books that clearly contradicted teachings already accepted by the broader Christian community were generally not recognized as Scripture.
Widespread Acceptance
A writing that was used and respected by churches across many different regions was more likely to become part of the canon than one known only to a small local community.
Use in Worship
Many of the books that eventually became part of the New Testament were regularly read aloud during Christian worship services.
Over time, this widespread liturgical use reinforced their authority.
These principles were not applied mechanically, nor did every church always agree. The recognition of the canon was a gradual historical process rather than a single event.
Important Milestones in the Canon
Several important historical events helped shape the development of the biblical canon.
In the middle of the second century AD, a Christian teacher named Marcion proposed a much shorter collection of Christian Scriptures. He rejected the Old Testament entirely and accepted only a modified version of the Gospel of Luke along with several of Paul’s letters.
Most Christian leaders rejected Marcion’s canon, but the controversy encouraged the Church to think more carefully about which writings should be recognized as authoritative.
Around the same period, an early document known as the Muratorian Fragment listed many of the New Testament books that were already widely recognized by Christian communities. Although its list is not identical to the modern New Testament, it shows that the process of recognizing authoritative books was well underway by the late second century.
In AD 367, Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, wrote his annual Easter Letter. In it, he listed the same twenty-seven books of the New Testament recognized by Christians today. This is the earliest surviving document to contain the complete New Testament canon exactly as it is known today.
Several regional church councils later affirmed similar lists. These councils did not write the books of the Bible or suddenly make them Scripture. Rather, they largely recognized books that had already gained broad acceptance among Christian communities.
By the end of the fourth century, the twenty-seven books of the New Testament had become widely accepted throughout the Christian world.
First century → New Testament books are written.
Second–fourth centuries → Christians debate and increasingly recognize particular writings as Scripture.
AD 367 → Athanasius gives the earliest surviving list containing exactly today’s 27 New Testament books.
Late fourth century → Regional councils affirm biblical lists; the 27-book New Testament becomes broadly established.
Middle Ages → Biblical manuscripts commonly circulate with collections recognized by their respective Christian traditions; the Latin Vulgate becomes enormously influential in Western Christianity.
1450s → Gutenberg prints the famous Gutenberg Bible—the first major book printed in Europe using movable metal type. This is a Catholic Latin Bible, not the origin of the biblical canon.
1534 → Luther’s complete German Bible is published, with the Apocrypha placed in a separate section.
1546 → The Council of Trent formally defines the Catholic canon in the context of the Reformation.
Why Do Christian Bibles Differ?
Today, all major branches of Christianity recognize the same twenty-seven books of the New Testament.
The primary differences concern the Old Testament.
Most Protestant Bibles contain thirty-nine Old Testament books.
The Catholic Church recognizes several additional books known as the Deuterocanonical Books.
Most Eastern Orthodox churches include these books as well as several others, though the exact collection varies somewhat between Orthodox traditions.
The modern distinction between Protestant and Catholic Old Testaments became firmly established during the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.
Reformers such as Martin Luther argued that the Old Testament should follow the Hebrew Jewish canon rather than the broader Greek Septuagint tradition. The Catholic Church continued to recognize the Deuterocanonical Books as Scripture, while Protestant churches generally did not.
As a result, Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Bibles continue to differ slightly in the books they include.
Importantly, these differences involve a relatively small number of books. The overwhelming majority of the biblical text is shared by all major Christian traditions.
Conclusion
The biblical canon is the collection of books that Christians recognize as authoritative Scripture.
Rather than appearing all at once, the canon developed over many centuries as Jewish and Christian communities preserved, copied, shared, and gradually recognized certain writings as sacred.
Although Christian traditions differ somewhat regarding the Old Testament, they all recognize the same twenty-seven books of the New Testament.
Understanding how the canon developed helps explain why different Christian Bibles are remarkably similar in most respects while differing slightly in the books they include.
In section 6.6, we will examine what Christians mean when they say that Scripture is “inspired” and how Christians understand divine inspiration.