6.3 The Old Testament:
Israel, Covenant, Law, Prophets, and Wisdom
The Old Testament is the first major section of the Christian Bible.
It contains the writings that Christians inherited from ancient Israel and shares much of its content with the sacred Scriptures of Judaism.
In Judaism, these writings are known as the Tanakh, an acronym formed from the Hebrew words Torah (Law), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). Although the contents are largely the same, the books are arranged differently than they are in most Christian Bibles.
The Old Testament tells the story of humanity’s relationship with God before the time of Jesus. It describes creation, the rise of the nation of Israel, God’s covenant relationships with His people, the giving of the Law, the messages of the prophets, and the hopes that shaped Jewish life for centuries.
Although Christians and Jews share many of these writings, they generally do not interpret them in the same way. Christians generally read the Old Testament in light of Jesus Christ, while Judaism interprets these texts within its own religious tradition.
To understand Christianity, it is important to understand the major themes of the Old Testament.
Creation and the Human Story
The Old Testament begins with the Book of Genesis.
Its opening chapters describe God as the creator of the heavens, the earth, and all living things. Humanity is presented as being created in the image of God and given responsibility to care for creation.
Genesis also introduces many themes that continue throughout the rest of the Bible:
- Human responsibility
- Good and evil
- Sin and disobedience
- Judgment and mercy
- Family relationships
- Faith and trust in God
The stories of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah, and the Tower of Babel all explore aspects of the human condition and humanity’s relationship with God.
Christians often refer to Adam and Eve’s disobedience as the Fall. Many Christian traditions understand the Fall as a pivotal moment that introduced sin, suffering, and death into the human experience, although Christians differ in how they understand its consequences. We will look at the Fall more in Module 8.
Whether the early chapters of Genesis are understood primarily as history, theology, symbolism, or some combination of these has been debated throughout Jewish and Christian history.
Regardless of interpretation, they establish many of the foundational themes that shape the rest of Scripture.
The Patriarchs and the Covenant
A major turning point in Genesis is the story of Abraham. According to the biblical narrative, God called Abraham to leave his homeland and promised that his descendants would become a great nation through which all nations of the earth would be blessed. This promise became one of the central covenants of the Old Testament.
The story continues through Abraham’s son Isaac, his grandson Jacob, and Jacob’s twelve sons, who became the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. These figures are often called the patriarchs because they stand at the beginning of Israel’s story. Throughout these accounts, the idea of covenant becomes increasingly important.
Rather than presenting God as distant or uninvolved, the Old Testament repeatedly portrays God entering into relationships and commitments with human beings.
The covenant with Abraham becomes a foundation for much of the rest of the biblical narrative.
Moses, the Exodus, and the Law
One of the most important events in the Old Testament is the Exodus.
According to the biblical account, the descendants of Abraham eventually became enslaved in Egypt. God then raised up Moses to lead them out of slavery and toward the land promised to their ancestors.
The Exodus became one of the defining events in Israel’s identity.
It was remembered as a demonstration of God’s power, faithfulness, justice, and concern for the oppressed.
The Exodus also gave rise to the annual celebration of Passover, which commemorates God’s deliverance of Israel from slavery. Passover later became especially significant in Christianity because Jesus’ final meal with His disciples took place during the Passover festival.
After leaving Egypt, the Israelites entered into a covenant with God at Mount Sinai. There they received laws, commandments, and instructions that would shape their life as a nation.
Among these laws are the Ten Commandments, which remain some of the most widely known ethical teachings in the world.
The Law addressed many aspects of life, including:
- Worship
- Justice
- Family relationships
- Property
- Community responsibilities
- Ritual practices
For ancient Israel, the Law was not simply a list of rules. It was understood as guidance for living in covenant relationship with God.
Christians often disagree about how Old Testament laws apply today, but the Law remains an important part of Christian Scripture and theology.
The Kingdom of Israel
After the period of Moses and the Exodus, Israel eventually became a kingdom.
The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings describe Israel’s settlement in the land, the rise of its leaders, and the development of its monarchy.
Three kings receive particular attention:
- Saul, Israel’s first king
- David, Israel’s most famous king
- Solomon, David’s son, known for his wisdom and the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem
The reign of David became especially important because later Jewish tradition anticipated a future Messiah—a Hebrew word meaning “Anointed One”—who would come from David’s royal line.
The Greek word for “Anointed One” is Christos, from which the English title Christ is derived. Christians believe Jesus is the promised Messiah, while Judaism continues to hold different expectations regarding the Messiah.
Around 930 BCE, following Solomon’s reign, the kingdom divided into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah and experienced periods of both prosperity and crisis. The historical books describe political struggles, wars, reforms, successes, failures, and the consequences of leadership decisions.
Throughout these narratives, a recurring theme emerges: nations and leaders flourish when they pursue justice and faithfulness but decline when they abandon them.
The Prophets
The prophets occupy a central place in the Old Testament.
Many people think of prophets primarily as predictors of the future, but their role was often much broader.
Prophets served as messengers, critics, teachers, and reformers. They challenged corruption, condemned injustice, warned of consequences, and called people back to faithfulness.
Figures such as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Amos, Hosea, Micah, and others frequently spoke against:
- Oppression of the poor
- Corrupt leadership
- Idolatry
- Violence
- Religious hypocrisy
The prophets often emphasized that genuine faith involved not only religious rituals but also justice, mercy, and ethical conduct.
Many prophetic writings also contain messages of hope, restoration, and the coming of God’s kingdom. Because of these themes, the prophets have had a lasting influence on both Jewish and Christian thought.
Wisdom Literature
Not all Old Testament books focus on history, law, or prophecy. Several books are devoted primarily to wisdom, reflection, and poetry.
The Book of Proverbs offers practical guidance for daily life and moral decision-making.
Ecclesiastes explores questions about meaning, purpose, mortality, and the limits of human achievement.
Job wrestles with suffering, justice, and the problem of evil.
The Psalms contain prayers, songs, lamentations, praise, thanksgiving, and worship.
These books address some of the deepest questions of human existence. Topics such as:
- Why do people suffer?
- What makes a life meaningful?
- How should people live?
- How can people relate to God?
Because they speak to universal human experiences, these writings continue to be widely read even outside religious communities.
Exile, Return, and Hope
A major theme of the later Old Testament is exile.
In 722 BC, the Assyrian Empire conquered the northern kingdom of Israel.
More than a century later, in 586 BC, the Babylonian Empire conquered the southern kingdom of Judah, destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem, and took many of its people into exile.
People wondered if God had abandoned His people. Could the covenant survive national disaster? What did the future hold?
After Babylon was conquered by the Persian Empire, many Jewish exiles were allowed to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple. This period of exile and return became one of the defining experiences of Jewish history. The prophets offered both warnings and hope, speaking of restoration, renewal, and God’s continued faithfulness despite national suffering.
These hopes shaped Jewish expectations for centuries and formed part of the historical background from which Christianity later emerged.
The Old Testament in Christianity
Although the books of the Old Testament appear in a particular order, they were not all written in that order, nor do they always describe events sequentially. For example, many of the prophetic books take place during events described in the historical books, while the Psalms were written across many centuries. Understanding where each book fits within Israel’s history helps readers better understand its purpose and message.
Christians regard the Old Testament as sacred Scripture. Jesus quoted it. The apostles quoted it. The writers of the New Testament frequently referred to its stories, laws, prophecies, and themes.
At the same time, Christians generally read the Old Testament through the lens of Jesus Christ.
Most Christians understand its narratives, covenants, symbols, and promises as preparing the way for Jesus and the events described in the New Testament.
Different Christian traditions explain these connections in different ways, but all major branches of Christianity recognize the Old Testament as an essential part of the biblical story.
Conclusion
The Old Testament tells the story of creation, covenant, Israel, law, prophecy, wisdom, exile, and hope. It introduces many of the central ideas that shape both Judaism and Christianity, including God’s relationship with humanity, the importance of covenant, the pursuit of justice, the challenge of human failure, and the hope for restoration. For Christians, the Old Testament provides the historical, theological, and cultural foundation upon which the New Testament is built.
In section 6.4, we will examine the New Testament and its focus on Jesus Christ, the apostles, the early church, and the message of God’s kingdom.