12.2 Realism:
Power, Security, and Survival
Political scientists have developed several major international relations theories. One of the oldest and most influential of these theories is realism.
Realism begins with the observation that states exist in an international system where there is no world government capable of protecting them. This idea is called anarchy in international relations.
Because the international system is anarchic, states cannot rely on a higher authority to guarantee their safety. As a result, states must ultimately look after themselves.
Realists argue that this reality shapes international politics more than any other factor.
According to realism, the primary goal of every state is survival. Before a state can pursue prosperity, justice, ideology, or human rights, it must first continue to exist. A state that cannot defend itself may lose its independence, territory, government, or even its existence altogether.
For this reason, realists believe that security is the central concern of international politics.
Human Nature and Power
Different realist thinkers disagree about some details, but many realists argue that competition for power is a permanent feature of political life.
Some realists trace this competition to human nature.
Ancient thinkers such as Thucydides and later thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes argued that fear, ambition, self-interest, and the desire for security often drive human behavior. Since states are led by human beings, these tendencies can also influence international politics.
Other realists focus less on human nature and more on the structure of the international system itself.
Regardless of which explanation they prefer, most realists agree that power matters because power helps states survive.
In international relations, power can take many forms:
- Military strength
- Economic resources
- Technology
- Population size
- Geographic advantages
- Natural resources
- Political stability
The more power a state possesses, the better positioned it is to protect itself and pursue its interests.
The Self-Help System
Because there is no higher authority above states, realism describes the international system as a self-help system.
Although states often cooperate, they cannot depend entirely on others for their security.
Even friendly countries can change governments, shift alliances, or pursue different interests over time.
As a result, states often maintain military forces, intelligence services, alliances, and defensive capabilities to protect themselves.
Realists argue that prudence requires states to prepare for uncertainty. A state that assumes others will always remain friendly may place itself at serious risk.
For this reason, realism tends to emphasize caution, preparedness, and the protection of national interests.
The Security Dilemma
One of realism’s most important concepts is the security dilemma.
A security dilemma occurs when one state’s efforts to increase its security make other states feel less secure.
For example, imagine that Country A increases its military spending because it wants to protect itself.
Country B may interpret this military buildup as a threat.
In response, Country B increases its own military spending.
Country A then becomes concerned about Country B’s growing military capabilities and expands its military even further.
Neither side may actually want war, yet both become more suspicious and heavily armed.
As a result, efforts to improve security can unintentionally increase tension and the risk of conflict.
The security dilemma helps explain why mistrust can develop even when states claim peaceful intentions.
Balance of Power
Because powerful states can threaten weaker ones, realists pay close attention to the balance of power.
The balance of power refers to the distribution of power among states.
When one state becomes overwhelmingly powerful, other states may feel threatened.
To prevent domination, states often respond by increasing their own capabilities or forming alliances with others.
For example, if one country rapidly expands its military strength, neighboring countries may cooperate to counterbalance that power.
Realists argue that these balancing behaviors are common throughout history.
Many alliances, rivalries, arms races, and diplomatic strategies can be understood as efforts to maintain or alter the balance of power.
War and Cooperation
Realism does not claim that war is inevitable.
States frequently cooperate through diplomacy, trade, treaties, and international organizations.
However, realists argue that cooperation is often limited by concerns about security and relative power.
States may cooperate when it serves their interests, but they remain cautious because today’s partner could become tomorrow’s competitor.
For this reason, realists tend to view international politics as a world of ongoing competition mixed with occasional cooperation.
Conflict is always possible because there is no higher authority capable of reliably enforcing peace between sovereign states.
Strengths and Criticisms of Realism
Realism has remained influential because it explains many important features of international politics. It helps explain wars, military competition, alliances, arms races, deterrence, and the behavior of great powers.
Many realists successfully predicted that concerns about power and security would continue to shape global politics even after the Cold War ended.
However, realism also faces criticism. Critics argue that realism sometimes focuses too heavily on conflict and not enough on cooperation. It may underestimate the importance of international organizations, economic interdependence, ideas, culture, and shared values. Others argue that realism can be too pessimistic because it assumes competition is the normal condition of international life.
Despite these criticisms, realism remains one of the most influential ways of understanding international relations.
At its core, realism argues that because states exist in an anarchic international system, they must prioritize security, power, and survival. Understanding these concerns helps explain why states often compete, form alliances, build military strength, and prepare for potential threats.
In section 12.3, we will examine a different perspective: liberalism, which argues that cooperation, trade, and international institutions can help reduce conflict and create greater stability in the international system.