13 Islamic Sects & Diversity
13.1 The Ummah and Islamic Diversity
13.2 Sunni Islam
13.3 Shia Islam
13.4 Minority Branches in Islam
13.1 The Ummah and Islamic Diversity
When people hear the word “Islam,” it often sounds like a single, unified system with one set of beliefs, one interpretation, and one way of being practiced. But in reality, Islam is not experienced as one uniform system across the world. In many cases, what people assume is “Islamic” is actually a combination of religious interpretation and local cultural tradition.
The term ummah appears 64 times in the Qur’an.
An ummah is the Arabic word for “nation” or “community.” In an Islamic context, it refers to the community of Muslim believers who are united by their shared faith, regardless of their nationality, race, or social status.
Unlike a traditional “nation-state” bound by geographic borders, the ummah is a borderless community that spans the entire world.
After the migration (Hijrah) to Medina, the Prophet Muhammad established the Constitution of Medina. This historical document originally defined the ummah as a pluralistic civic community that included Muslims, Jews, and other pagan tribes who were to live together and defend the city as one people.
In a famous Hadith, the Prophet Muhammad described the ummah as “one body.” If any part of the body suffers, the entire body feels the pain, emphasizing the duty to support and care for one another. Over time, as Islam expanded and developed as a distinct religious identity, the term ummah came to refer specifically to the global community of Muslims.
Islam is unified in its core beliefs:
- Belief in one God (Allah, in Arabic)
- The Qur’an as the final revelation
- Muhammad as the final prophet
- Practicing the Five Pillars
While Islam has a strong concept of unity through the ummah, that unity does not eliminate differences in interpretation and practice. This creates a tension between the ideal of unity and the reality of diversity. Beyond the shared foundations, there is significant diversity in how Islam is understood, interpreted, and practiced.
This diversity shows up as differences in:
- Leadership and authority
- Legal interpretation (Sharia)
- Cultural expression
- Personal levels of observance
This means that different groups may all claim to represent Islam, while understanding and applying it in very different ways.
In section 13.2, we’ll look at the largest and most influential branch of Islam: Sunni Islam.
13.2 Sunni Islam
One of the most well-known divisions within Islam today is between Sunni and Shia Muslims. This is the largest and most influential distinction within the global Muslim population.
Sunni and Shia Muslims share the same core foundations of Islam: they follow the Qur’an, believe Muhammad to be the final prophet, and practice the central elements of the faith.
An important difference between Sunni and Shia Islam revolves around leadership and authority.
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Sunni Muslims make up approximately 85–90% of the global Muslim population (roughly 1.6 to 1.8 billion people).
The term Sunni is derived from Sunnah and means, “people of the prophetic tradition.”
They are located in countries such as: Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Jordan. Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world and is predominantly Sunni.
Sunnis believe that leadership of the Muslim community (ummah) should be determined through consensus or selection by the community, rather than limiting leaders to the Prophet’s family bloodline.
They recognize Abu Bakr (the Prophet’s close friend and father-in-law) as the first legitimate successor (Caliph) and honor the first four Caliphs as the “Rightly Guided” (Rashidun).
Religious authority in Sunni Islam rests with scholars (ulama), who interpret Sharia based on established traditions and scholarly consensus.
Within Sunni Islam, there are four major schools of law: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi’i.
Sunni Muslims also commonly refer to six core articles of faith, which include: belief in Allah, angels, revealed books, messengers, the Day of Judgment, and divine decree (predestination).
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Saudi Arabia → Sunni-majority power
Indonesia → largest Sunni-majority population
In section 13.3, we will take a closer look at the second largest branch in Islam: Shia Islam.
13.3 Shia Islam
While Sunni Muslims account for approximately 85–90% of the global Muslim population, Shia Muslims make up most of the remaining 10–15% (between 160 and 260 million people).
In many everyday situations, one cannot easily tell whether someone is a Sunni Muslim or Shia Muslim just by looking at them. The difference becomes clearer through context—such as country, leadership, religious practices, and specific events. Many Muslims don’t openly emphasize the distinction, and in some places asking directly is considered insensitive.
The largest Shia populations are in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan.
Bahrain has a Shia-majority population, although its government is Sunni-led.
Several countries, including Lebanon, Yemen, and Syria, have both Sunni and Shia populations, sometimes living peacefully side by side, and other times experiencing tension depending on political and social conditions.
While the core of prayer is the same, Shia Muslims often combine the five daily prayers into three prayer times.
Shias believe that leadership of the Muslim community (ummah) should remain within the family and bloodline of the Prophet Muhammad, specifically through a line of leaders known as Imams. The literal meaning of imam in Arabic is “one who proceeds.”
The term “Shia” is derived from Shi’atu Ali (“the party of Ali” or “followers of Ali”). Unlike Sunni Muslims, who believed in electing leaders (Caliphs), Shias believe Prophet Muhammad explicitly appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib (the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law) as his first successor. Shias do not recognize the three Caliph leaders before Ali as rightful successors.
Most Shias hold that the Imamate (leadership) is a divine appointment rather than a political selection, and that Imams are infallible spiritual leaders.
The largest school of law in Shia Islam is called Twelver Shia.
Twelvers believe that there were exactly twelve rightful Imams, and that the 12th Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, did not die but disappeared in 874 CE. He is considered to be in “occultation” (hiding) and remains alive, acting as a spiritual guide until he returns before the end of time to eliminate oppression and bring justice.
Twelver Shia Islam also places a strong emphasis on the concept of martyrdom, particularly in remembrance of Husayn ibn Ali.
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The difference between Sunni and Shia Muslims influences interpretations of Sharia and religious practices. Both groups rely on Hadith, but they prioritize different collections and chains of transmission.
These differences often intersect with political systems. For example, Iran’s government is shaped by Shia religious leadership, while Saudi Arabia’s system is influenced by Sunni traditions.
It is important to understand that not every conflict involving Sunni and Shia groups is purely religious. In many situations, political power, regional influence, and historical dynamics play a significant role. Religion may shape identity and language around a conflict, but it is often not the only factor.
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Saudi Arabia → Sunni-majority power
Indonesia → largest Sunni-majority population
Iran → Shia-majority power + largest Shia-majority population
In section 13.4, we will look at minority branches in Islam.
13.4 Minority Branches in Islam
In addition to Sunni and Shia Islam, there are several smaller branches within the broader Islamic world. These groups make up a much smaller percentage of the global Muslim population, but they contribute to the overall diversity of Islamic belief and practice.
Ibadi Islam is often described as a third branch of Islam, distinct from both Sunni and Shia traditions. It forms the majority in Oman.
Ibadi communities are generally known for emphasizing moderation, stability, and community consensus. Historically, they have tended to avoid the more intense political conflicts that have shaped parts of Sunni–Shia relations.
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Sufism is not a separate sect in the same way as Sunni or Shia Islam. Instead, it is a spiritual and mystical tradition that exists within both Sunni and Shia communities. A person can be a “Sunni Sufi” or a “Shia Sufi.”
Sufis focus on developing a deeper, more personal connection with God, often emphasizing inner spirituality, reflection, and constant remembrance of God (dhikr). They stress the inner, spiritual experience of Islam and the transformation of the heart, rather than just knowing about God intellectually or following rules externally.
Many Sufis belong to organized spiritual groups, sometimes called orders or brotherhoods, where a teacher guides students in their spiritual development. Brotherhoods have historically played an important role in spreading Islam and often provide social and charitable support within their communities.
The term “brotherhood” is also used in modern political contexts (such as the Muslim Brotherhood), but the political use of brotherhood is separate from Sufi spiritual groups.
Not all Muslims follow Sufi traditions. In some regions Sufism is widely embraced, while in others it is viewed more critically.
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There are also other smaller groups within the Islamic world (like Ahmadiyya, Alawites, or Druze), each with their own interpretations and traditions. Some of these include communities that developed around specific historical or theological ideas.
These groups vary widely in beliefs and practices, and their status within Islam is debated. Some are not recognized as part of mainstream Islam by many Sunni and Shia scholars.
These smaller branches and traditions further highlight that Islam is not a single, uniform system, but a global religion expressed in diverse ways.
In Module 14, we will explore conversion to Islam and apostasy.